Strike marie curie biography summary

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is lurk the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, see Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 November – 4 July ), known simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and druggist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Adore, the first person to win a Nobel Guerdon twice, and the only person to win unornamented Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her keep, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of her eminent Nobel Prize, making them the first married twosome to win the Nobel Prize and launching description Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the first woman to comprehend a professor at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, in what was then illustriousness Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Conglomerate. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University obtain began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. Employ , aged 24, she followed her elder Bronisława to study in Paris, where she just her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent methodical work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the Nobel Trophy in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing greatness theory of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie died in a Paris street mishap. Marie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry fetch her discovery of the elements polonium and ra, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by representation use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Chemist Institute in Paris in , and the Ci Institute in Warsaw in ; both remain higher ranking medical research centres. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray maintenance to field hospitals.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never absent her sense of Polish identity. She taught dismiss daughters the Polish language and took them hobby visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first man-made element she discovered polonium, after her native country.^[b] Marie Curie died in , aged 66, go rotten the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely from exposure to radiation in distinction course of her scientific research and in excellence course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.^[9] In addition to concoct Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours weather tributes; in she became the first woman inhibit be entombed on her own merits in honesty Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared the Year interpret Marie Curie during the International Year of Immunology. She is the subject of numerous biographical scowl.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born comport yourself Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Monarchy, on 7 November , the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, leading Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family confidential lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This condemned the subsequent age, including Maria and her elder siblings, to nifty difficult struggle to get ahead in life.^[15] Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had been principal notice the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading figure in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Mare was to pursue, and was also director go along with two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. Rear 1 Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Furbish schools, he brought much of the laboratory paraphernalia home and instructed his children in its use.^[13] He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on on the rocks bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding kindergarten for girls; she resigned from the position pinpoint Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis confined May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest kinsman, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from well-organized boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheist, her dam a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's curb and sister caused her to give up Christianity and become agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten years give a pasting, Maria began attending J. Sikorska's boarding school; closest she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June board a gold medal.^[12] After a collapse, possibly claim to depression,^[13] she spent the following year splotch the countryside with relatives of her father, champion the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable to retain acquire in a regular institution of higher education since she was a woman, she and her baby Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying Origination (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), a Polish loyal institution of higher learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, ramble she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for quiet assistance two years later.^[12][20] In connection with that, Maria took a position first as a soupзon tutor in Warsaw, then for two years style a governess in Szczuki with a landed the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] While working for the latter family, she floor in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, neat future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the answer of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss mislay the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued deal with academic career as a mathematician, becoming a academician and rector of Kraków University. Still, as harangue old man and a mathematics professor at distinction Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before high-mindedness statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium Institute, which she difficult founded in ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and straighten up half longer to gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was due to secure a more lucrative position again.^[20] Integral that time she continued to educate herself, highway books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] Enhance early she returned home to her father intensity Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as a governess tube remained there until late ^[20] She tutored, pretended at the Flying University, and began her ordinary scientific training (–) in a chemistry laboratory nail the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The region was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg anticipate the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In fit together , she left Poland for France.^[23] In Town, Maria (or Marie, as she would be progress in France) briefly found shelter with her develop and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer spread the university, in the Latin Quarter, and suit with her studies of physics, chemistry, and arithmetic at the University of Paris, where she registered in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her poor resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters from end to end of wearing all the clothes she had. She conscientious so hard on her studies that she every so often forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied during the allot and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Sidewalk , she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory pan Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at grandeur University of Paris and with the aid abide by a fellowship she was able to earn skilful second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had begun her mathematical career in Paris with an investigation of rectitude magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by rank Society for the Encouragement of National Industry.^[25] Cruise same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: okay was their mutual interest in natural sciences make certain drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an tutor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics boss Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who abstruse learned that she was looking for a important laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie did not have a great laboratory, he was able to find some measurement lengthwise for Skłodowska where she was able to set off work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for science brought them progressively closer, and they began to develop feelings stake out one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but assume first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her array country. Curie, however, declared that he was assemble to move with her to Poland, even assuming it meant being reduced to teaching French.^[12] Hole, for the summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was break off labouring under the illusion that she would tweak able to work in her chosen field incorporate Poland, but she was denied a place put the lid on Kraków University because of sexism in academia.^[15] Unornamented letter from Pierre convinced her to return reach Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistency, Curie had written up his research on attraction and received his own doctorate in March ; he was also promoted to professor at justness School.^[25] A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were ringed in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a 1 gown, would serve her for many years reorganization a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: plug away bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a- new love, a partner, and a scientific quisling on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though righteousness mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their refined power.^[28] He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike ruddiness, did not depend on an external source enterprise energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from u itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Chemist decided to look into uranium rays as dialect trig possible field of research for a thesis.^[12][28]

She deskbound an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen time earlier, her husband and his brother had cultivated a version of the electrometer, a sensitive scheme for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the bring down around a sample to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding think about it the activity of the uranium compounds depended sole on the quantity of uranium present.^[28] She speculative that the radiation was not the outcome a selection of some interaction of molecules but must come newcomer disabuse of the atom itself.^[28] This hypothesis was an manager step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her daughter Irène was born. Enhance support her family, Curie began teaching at rectitude École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not receive a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next benefits ESPCI.^[23] The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof.^[30] They were unaware of the deleterious effects presumption radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected pointless with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor permutation research, but she received subsidies from metallurgical post mining companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende trip torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active chimpanzee uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating goodness quantity of uranium to its activity were amend, then these two minerals must contain small everything of another substance that was far more undeveloped than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search tend additional substances that emit radiation, and by she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her be concerned. By mid he was so invested in ceiling that he decided to drop his work assertive crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped bodyguard formulate it, and although she took it done her husband for his opinion she clearly intimate her ownership of it. She later recorded ethics fact twice in her biography of her spouse to ensure there was no chance whatever conjure any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already deed this early stage of her career [she] manifest that many scientists would find it difficult commend believe that a woman could be capable fairhaired the original work in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of the importance of straightaway publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her precedence. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented rulership discovery to the French Academy of Sciences description day after he made it, credit for blue blood the gentry discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Physicist chose the same rapid means of publication. Cohort were not eligible for membership of the Académie des Sciences until , so that all say no to presentations had to be made for her near male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a brief favour simple account of her work, was presented connote her to the Académie on 12 April get ahead of her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, impartial as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, deadpan Curie was beaten in the race to announce of her discovery that thorium gives off emanation in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his go through finding in Berlin.^[36] At that time, no figure out else in the world of physics had attract what Curie recorded in a sentence of bake paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than that of u itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may have the capacity for an element which is much more active prior to uranium." She later would recall how she matte "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis on account of rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , prestige Curies optimistically weighed out a gram sample be in the region of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle roost mortar. They did not realise at the delay that what they were searching for was story in such minute quantities that they would in the end have to process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and her husband published a disjoint paper announcing the existence of an element they named "polonium", in honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another twenty years remain screen among three empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] Arrest 26 December , the Curies announced the stand of a second element, which they named "radium", from the Latin word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In honesty course of their research, they also coined decency word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond any beyond doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and ra in pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was disallow arduous task. The discovery of polonium had antiquated relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bi, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance play a part the ore.^[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; service is closely related chemically to barium, and mineral contains both elements. By the Curies had borrowed traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated matter barium, were still beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salted colourful by differential crystallisation. From a tonne of uraninite, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in In , she isolated pure ra metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies published, jointly or separately, a accurate of 32 scientific papers, including one that proclaimed that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.^[42]

In , Chemist became the first woman faculty member at character École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined influence faculty of the University of Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.^[23]

In June , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Chemist was awarded her doctorate from the University indifference Paris.^[23][45] That month the couple were invited soft-soap the Royal Institution in London to give splendid speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new industry began processing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not conspicuous their discovery and benefited little from this progressively profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Swedish Institution of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, explode Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics,^[47] "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At first goodness committee had intended to honour only Pierre Ci and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member wallet advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and end his complaint, Marie's name was added to depiction nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman hold down be awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie and her hoard declined to go to Stockholm to receive ethics prize in person; they were too busy be level with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked community ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in ^[48] The grant money allowed the Curies to hire their pass with flying colours laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of the Philanthropist Prize, and galvanised by an offer from character University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie unadulterated position, the University of Paris gave him first-class professorship and the chair of physics, although probity Curies still did not have a proper laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Town relented and agreed to furnish a new workplace, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave birth to their following daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses to train her daughters her native language, and sent quality took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 Apr , Pierre Curie was killed in a method accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in weighty rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn means and fell under its wheels, fracturing his main and killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by way of her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University of Paris decided draw attention to retain the chair that had been created need her late husband and offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a first laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first woman to become shipshape and bristol fashion professor at the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest dissertation create a new laboratory did not end become apparent to the University of Paris, however. In her consequent years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut buffer radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radiation laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institution and the University of Paris.^[51] The initiative cart creating the Radium Institute had come in shun Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Biologist Institute, who had been disappointed that the Code of practice of Paris was not giving Curie a bureaucrat laboratory and had suggested that she move difficulty the Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, with the commination of Curie leaving, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became trig joint initiative of the University of Paris become peaceful the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for hot emissions that was eventually named for her captain Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, in the French Institution of Sciences failed, by one^[23] or two votes,^[53] to elect her to membership in the faculty. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over half a century subsequent, in , that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected beat membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame thanks to a scientist working for France, the public's opinion tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led touch on the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation guarantee Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the French Academy disregard Sciences elections, she was vilified by the rightist press as a foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her bird later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy add on portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but depiction her as a French heroine when she traditional foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Curie was involved thorough a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, calligraphic former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married guy who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited offspring her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Someone home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was deliver at a conference in Belgium; on her send, she found an angry mob in front break into her house and had to seek refuge, own her daughters, in the home of her pal Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her work had back number growing to new heights, and the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by character Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, industrial action the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services to the enhancement of chemistry by the discovery of the smattering radium and polonium, by the isolation of ra and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the disputing publicity due to her affair with Langevin, glory chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at the official service for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing disgruntlement questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because "the enjoy has been given to her for her catch of polonium and radium" and that "there denunciation no relation between her scientific work and rank facts of her private life".

She was dignity first person to win or share two Altruist Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling though Nobel laureates in two fields each. A authorization of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed via novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return give permission Poland and continue her research in her pick country.^[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her get at persuade the French government to support the Metal Institute, built in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine.^[52] A month rear 1 accepting her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised involve depression and a kidney ailment. For most oppress , she avoided public life but did be extravagant time in England with her friend and one physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her work only in December, after a break of contest 14 months.^[57]

In the Warsaw Scientific Society offered laid back the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Metal Institute to be completed in August , come first on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of interpretation Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of character University of Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw on the other hand the visit was mostly ignored by the Native authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by probity First World War, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army; it fully resumed well-fitting activities after the war, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded rank and file were best served if operated upon as erelong as possible.^[60] She saw a need for specialization radiological centres near the front lines to aid battlefield surgeons,^[59] including to obviate amputations when handset fact limbs could be saved.^[61][62] After a good-humored study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and auxiliary generators, charge she developed mobile radiography units, which came in the air be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of the Red Crabbed Radiology Service and set up France's first heroic radiology centre, operational by late ^[59] Assisted enraged first by a military doctor and her year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another radiological units trim field hospitals in the first year of nobility war.^[52][59] Later, she began training other women rightfully aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas given off outdo radium, later identified as radon, to be stirred for sterilising infected tissue. She provided the metal from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is reputed that over a million wounded soldiers were of a mind with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this awl, she carried out very little scientific research extensive that period.^[52] In spite of all her benefactor contributions to the French war effort, Curie not in the least received any formal recognition of it from goodness French government.^[59]

Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French Stable Bank